The Winner Casey Stoner Czech MotoGP

The Best Racer Casey Stoner - Czech MotoGP Champions - Casey Stoner (born in Kurri Kurri, New South Wales, Australia, October 16, 1985, age 25 years old) is a MotoGP rider from Australia. Currently, he joined Repsol Honda team with Daniel Pedrosa and Andrea Dovizioso. He began his motor racing debut as a wild card rider at Donington Park Circuit, the British Grand Prix 125cc class in 2001. After several years of a career in the 125cc and 250cc, Stoner and then go to the MotoGP class in 2006 with the LCR Honda team. Peak of his career occurred in 2007 when he joined with Ducati Marlboro after he was able to become world champions for the first time. His achievement was, in the 2008 season, Stoner was awarded the title of Young Australian of the Year by the Australian government.

Personal

Casey Stoner was the second child of the couple Colin Stoner (an itinerant painter who often become amateur motor racing driver) and Bronwyn. Casey had a sister named Kelly Stoner, who is also a hobby and often fall in the local amateur motor racing event. Ever since I was little, Stoner had known motorcycle albeit in limited touch or stylish like a racer. He had his first motorcycle at age 4 years try after taught by his brother.

In 1993, Stoner family later moved from Southport to the Kurri Kurri in New South Wales in its efforts to support the efforts and spirit of small Stoner in following the race. Casey Stoner also had to attend school until the age of 12 years before then come out and prefer to home schooling in 1997. In 1999, after seeing a big opportunity for Stoner to a career as a racer, the family decided to move to England. Where they got hit by confusion because they do not have the money to pay for apartment rent and taxes and forced to live in a caravan.

Casey Stoner currently lives in Monte Carlo, Monaco, where his family still often commute Australia-English-Monaco. Stoner himself had mentioned that in just one year he could return to the homeland in Australia, namely during the Australian MotoGP race.

Family and Friends

Casey Stoner was first met with Adriana Tuchyna from Adelaide in the Australian MotoGP race of 2003. It was Stoner gave his signature in the stomach Adriana, after the Australian women was "a bit" forced Stoner to want to sign her stomach. The relationship between Stoner and Adriana began in 2005 when Adriana was 16 years old. Later in 2007, the couple agreed to marry. Subject of this marriage, Stoner had said that:

"I would prefer tradition as ancient society, because as you know now famous Australian young life that is free will habits. I still want to maintain the past traditions of Australia, and that's why there is no other way for me besides Adriana woo the fine rather than do things that are less praiseworthy. "

Outside the race, Casey Stoner, including people-friendly and has many friends. One close friend is Kimi Raikkonen Stoner. They first met in the event an annual family ski Ferrari and Ducati in early 2007. Kimi said that Stoner had a great ability and can become world champion when the time is right. In their second meeting in 2008, when Kimi and Stoner bearing the official world championships, both drivers are absolutely never thought, wishful thinking when they join a new team that is still alien culture turned out sweet fruit culture, namely the world title.

Two other friends Stoner is Fernando Alonso and Michael Schumacher. Alonso and Stoner met on a similar annual ski event in early 2010, and then Stoner success troublesome Alonso in a car race on ice. After the race, Alonso was judged that Stoner although fairly common with four-wheel racing world, but he was able to adapt quickly and can compete with the seniors who have more experience with four-wheel racing. Meanwhile, the beginning of the meeting and friendship with Schumi Stoner started in mid-2008 when Schumacher test the Ducati Desmosedici Stoner's. At that time, Schumacher is also not shy to ask his Ducati motorcycle characteristics to Stoner, Stoner with friendly and helped Schumacher during testing takes place.

Criticism and Controversy

Stoner is known as a racer who easily disappointed if he lost or exposed to criticism from others. In 2007, he had been exposed to harsh criticism from the community to dominate in MotoGP after a successful first half of the season. Stoner's MotoGP fans saw success at that time based on the appearance of a good motor and tires than Stoner's own talent. Later in the two races of the British GP in 2007 and 2008, Stoner was despised by the fans by noisily shouted as he emerged from the garage.

In 2008 also, Stoner was getting harsh criticism from a health organization in Australia around the Ducati team who prefer working with cigarette manufacturer Philip Morris (Marlboro). The health organization said Stoner, who is an athlete and non-smokers chose the wrong move by joining a team that promotes tobacco products in a sports competition.

Early Career

Junior Race

Stoner tested the first race at age four in a class of land races U9 (under age 9) Mike Hatcher at the race track is located on the Gold Coast, Australia. From the age of nine to 14 years, Stoner won 41 local races and 70 races between Australian states.

Stoner also had time to follow the race of super-busy for more than a week, when he followed five different racing classes in a race to race 35 races. Stoner himself participated in 32 of 35 races in five different classes, and he was later able to win five classes.

Due to the minimum age to race in Australia is 16 years, Stoner moved to England, where there a minimum age to get a racing license is 14 years. From 2000 to 2002, Stoner and then participate in the national championship race in the British 125cc motorcycle and Spain. Stoner then managed to win the title Aprilia British Motor Racing Championship in 2000. His appearance is impressive and engaging driver team manager Lucio Cecchinello, which then provides the opportunity Stoner British GP race down in 2001 as a wild card, before finally in 2002, Stoner fell full on the MotoGP 250cc class with LCR Racing.

125cc and 250cc

In 2003, still with the LCR Racing, Stoner and then fell in the 125cc class. Supported by Aprilia, Stoner has recorded four times a podium finish, three of which are perennial powerhouses second position in Germany, Brazil, and the Pacific as well as a victory that he managed to achieve in Valencia at the end of the season. With this result, Stoner then managed to sit at P8 standings with a value of 125 points.

2004 season, parting with Stoner LCR Racing and joined the Red Bull KTM team. In this season he won only one race is in Malaysia. But he could still be entertained by finishing second twice and three times finished third. Position standings Stoner in the 2004 season with 145 points is P5.

In 2005, Stoner returned to the 250cc class and re-partnering with Team LCR Aprilia Racing and the manufacturer. Riding a motorcycle with manufacturer specifications, Stoner appeared as the main challenger Daniel Pedrosa and Honda, and even Stoner also has several opportunities to become leaders. Stoner himself managed to win in Portugal, China, Malaysia, and Qatar. Apesnya, while racing in front of the public house itself, which is the Australian GP, ​​Stoner had an accident, and forced to forget his dream of becoming world champion in 250cc in 2005 despite once again able Stoner won the race in Turkey. Stoner then managed to finish as runners-up 250cc championship in 2005 with a value of 254 points.

MotoGP career

LCR Honda (2006)

The fall of 2005, Stoner said to have pocketed an official contract with Yamaha's Valentino Rossi to be a companion in the 2006 season. But then Yamaha cancel the fabric of cooperation, and could make Casey Stoner was disappointed. In January 2006, Stoner and then try again invite Lucio Checchinello to want to become supporters for the fall race in the MotoGP class in 2006. Checchinello then agrees, and he immediately contacted the HRC and filed a proposal renting units Honda RC211V for the 2006 season. Honda necessarily agree, and be cooperative and Checchinello Stoner continued in the 2006 season in the MotoGP class.

Stoner in the MotoGP class debut in the series starts in Jerez Spain, where he finished in P6. In the next race in Qatar, Stoner directly mengebrak by grabbing pole position, but during the race he was only able to finish P5. Stoner then went on a brilliant performance by almost won in Turkey before making a fatal mistake in the last lap which caused him to fail to win the race and had to settle for P2 behind Marco Melandri. In the mid-season, Stoner later appeared unstable and did a lot of mistakes led to the accident. Even so, he performed quite well in the 2006 season with a finish in the standings with 119 points P8.

Ducati Marlboro (2007-2010)

Honda made a fatal mistake at the end of 2006 with no binding long term contracts with Stoner managed to put to good use by the Ducati, who finally managed to sign Stoner for the 2007 season., [In the 2007 season alone Stoner, Loris Capirossi joined together at the Italian team . Stoner replace Sete Gibernau who was fired because his performance judged less convincing and tended to decrease.

With the new Ducati Desmosedici GP7 weapons are designed to meet the new regulations MotoGP 800cc, Stoner appear extraordinary in 2007. Stoner started the season with a spectacular victory in Qatar and then he continued in Turkey and China. He then managed to win 10 races (including a hat trick in the U.S., the Czech and San Marino) and won six poles, which then drove him to world title MotoGP 2007 by a margin of 125 points over second place Daniel Pedrosa. The position of the worst finish is achieved Stoner at Motegi Grand Prix, when he finished the P6 and confirm themselves as a world champion in 2007.

2008 season, Stoner struggled to defend his world champion title. He won the season-opening victory in Qatar. He later appeared normal in Spain and Portugal, and a new back on the podium at the Chinese Grand Prix. After performing poorly in France, he then climbed the podium in Italy before then recorded a hat trick in England victory (with the lead from start to finish) the Netherlands (the same as in England) and Germany (assisted accident experienced Pedrosa). With this result Stoner managed to climb back into the P1 standings, but then fall back position after a fall at Laguna Seca while leading the race before eventually bounce back and finish second. Furthermore, in Brno and Misano, Stoner failed to finish due to damage to the motor which ended in failure to retain world title. Stoner then had to settle for runners-up appear behind Valentino Rossi winning the points standings with a total of as much as 280 points.

2009 season, Stoner still survive in the Ducati and now he was accompanied by a new racer and former world champion, Nicky Hayden. Stoner also agreed to extend his contract for one year with Ducati in 2010. Through a tight battle in Qatar against the Fiat Yamaha duo of Valentino Rossi and Jorge Lorenzo, Stoner won the season-opening race in Qatar, before he suffered a strange illness that cause fatigue every time a race. As a result, he must be satisfied in P3 standings when the race entered the U.S. GP at Laguna Seca. The results of the examination the doctor then concluded Stoner suffering from acute anemia disease and stomach disorders. As the recovery effort itself, Stoner then announced that for the three races in round 11, 12, and 13 he will be out of the race , and Finn Mika Kallio was appointed as a temporary replacement. After full recovery from his illness, Stoner returned to race in Portugal and directly record a second podium. Then in Australia and Malaysia, Stoner made it back to victory lane. Misfortune then came back to Stoner in the closing race in Valencia. After reaching the pole in qualifying, Stoner appeared confident for the race before he fell because of unforced errors on lap warm-up. Stoner finished fourth in 2009 standings with 220 points.

In 2010 pre-season test session, Casey Stoner clocked the fastest time again in one session of six training sessions held, where the other five are dominated by Valentino Rossi. Later in the 2010 season opening race in Qatar, Stoner was once again recorded a pole position and had led the race before finally foundered in mid-race due to too eager. Once again foundered due to similar errors in France , Stoner managed to get up and finish fourth at the Italian GP. Later in the Dutch GP in Assen, Stoner recorded his first podium in the 2010 season after finishing third. Two other times he got finished third in Catalunya and Germany before the rise to P2 in the U.S. after the accident helped Daniel Pedrosa. Stoner's first victory in the 2010 season recorded at Motorrad Aragon after the record pole position during qualifying. He continued a similar victory in Japan, and almost Stoner scored a hat trick in Malaysia before it ran aground due to falling while leading. Later in the race its own cage in Australia, Stoner returned victorious to win the race before falling back and knocked out in Portugal. Stoner then closed the 2010 season with second place in Valencia, and he established his position in the standings, which stood at 225 points.

Repsol Honda (2011-present)

Rumors of a return to Honda Stoner has been echoed since the beginning of the 2010 season, but both Stoner and Repsol Honda has denied these rumors. Honda could even say that they are more satisfied with the performance of the team that existed at the time the duo of Daniel Pedrosa and Andrea Dovizioso. In June 2010, the newspaper's move to Honda Stoner finally became a reality after the Honda approve multi-year contract with the Australian rider. The position of Stoner at Ducati will be replaced by legendary racer Valentino Rossi, while the Honda will be accompanied Stoner Pedrosa and Dovizioso.

In the winter test session with Honda, Stoner was immediately kicked off by winning the second position the fastest. In his official debut with Repsol Honda in the series races Qatar, Stoner was immediately kicked off by grabbing his first win. Unfortunately on the next series in Spain she ran aground due to improper maneuver Valentino Rossi. After finishing third in Portugal, Stoner wins in France and Catalunya.

Outside MotoGP

Casey Stoner revealed that in the future, after he retired as a MotoGP rider, he was eager to get down in the arena of auto racing. One car racing event that he wanted to try is the Australian V8 Supercar Series, which is a championship race touring Australia . Stoner himself apparently often test the high-tech cars, such as when he tested the Alfa Romeo 8C Competizione in 2008, after he became world champion in MotoGP. Alfa Romeo himself was listed as a sponsor of the Ducati team. Stoner himself is one of the lucky ones because he could get the car free of charge as a reward for his achievements became world champion in 2007.

Mid-2008, when he "guided" Michael Schumacher in testing the Ducati Desmosedici, Stoner also hinted that he wanted to try a Formula 1 car. However, Stoner said that he would never move from MotoGP to F1.

Stoner's father, Colin, said that he would be very happy if after retiring as a MotoGP rider, his son returned home to Australia and start a new career as an entrepreneur in the field of animal husbandry and agriculture. Stoner then justify these words of his father, and he had a strong desire to carry out such work. Stoner also aspires to open a race school in her home country, namely Australia, in order to invite young men and women go down to try out Australia for an international racing event.

Race in Czech 2011

Repsol Honda rider, Casey Stoner, the MotoGP series champion Czech Republic, Sunday, August 14, 2011. Unfortunately, his teammate, Dani Pedrosa suffered just unlucky in the race that was held at the Brno circuit this.

Pedrosa, who started from pole position to leave the race after skidding on the third lap. Had the lead on lap-lap the Spaniard's early steps should be stopped after a slip on the fourth bend.

Stoner immediately took charge of the race. Behind him followed Yamaha rider Jorge Lorenzo followed by Repsol Honda rider Andrea Dovizioso and Honda Gresini, Marco Simoncelli in fourth position.

Entering the fifth lap, Dovizioso who before was in third position ahead of Lorenzo now had managed to make a small mistake. But last season's world champion managed to regain second place on lap nine.

Lorenzo and Dovizioso continued to press managed to grab second place on lap 12. Lorenzo then dropped down to fourth position after Simoncelli got through it before long. While Stoner farther ahead.

In the remaining laps there, competition is fierce exactly happened between Dovizioso and Simoncelli. Simoncelli in fourth position continued to press Dovizioso.

But until the checkered flag was unfurled, Dovizioso remains in second place followed by Simoncelli in third place. Meanwhile, Lorenzo had to settle for fourth position followed by Ben Spies and Valentino Rossi.

Stoner on pole position and won his sixth title this season. Thanks to this victory, Stoner became more firmly on top of the drivers' standings with 218 points followed by collection of Lorenzo with a collection of 186 points.

Race Results

1. Stoner

2. Dovizioso

3. Simoncelli

4. Lorenzo

5. Spies

6. Rossi

7. Hayden

8. Edwards

9. Aoyama

10. Barbera

11. Elias

12. de Puniet

13. Capirossi

Amateur and professional tattoos





Tattooing among females of the Koita people of Papua New Guinea traditionally began at age five and was added to each year, with the V-shaped tattoo on the chest indicating that she had reached marriageable age, 1912.

Many tattoos serve as rites of passage, marks of status and rank, symbols of religious and spiritual devotion, decorations for bravery, sexual lures and marks of fertility, pledges of love, punishment, amulets and talismans, protection, and as the marks of outcasts, slaves and convicts. The symbolism and impact of tattoos varies in different places and cultures. Tattoos may show how a person feels about a relative (commonly mother/father or daughter/son) or about an unrelated person.

Today, people choose to be tattooed for cosmetic, sentimental/memorial, religious, and magical reasons, and to symbolize their belonging to or identification with particular groups, including criminal gangs (see criminal tattoos) but also a particular ethnic group or law-abiding subculture. Some Māori still choose to wear intricate moko on their faces. In Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand, the yantra tattoo is used for protection against evil and to increase luck.

In the Philippines certain tribal groups believe that tattoos have magical qualities, and help to protect their bearers. Most traditional tattooing in the Philippines is related to the bearer's accomplishments in life or rank in the tribe. Among Catholic Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina, tattoos with Christian symbols would be inked on to protect themselves from the Muslim Turks.

Extensive decorative tattooing is common among members of traditional freak shows and by performance artists who follow in their tradition.

[edit]Identification





Tattoo marking a deserter from the British Army. Skin removed post-mortem.

People have also been forcibly tattooed. A well-known example is the identification system for inmates in Nazi concentration camps during the Holocaust. Tattoos have also been used for identification in other ways.

For example, during the Roman Empire, Roman soldiers were required by law to have indentifying tattoos on their hands in order to make it difficult to hide if they deserted. Gladiators and slaves were likewise tattooed, exported slaves were tattooed with the words "tax paid" and it was a common practice to tattoo "Stop me, I'm a runaway" on their foreheads. Emperor Constantine I banned tattooing the face around AD 330 and the Second Council of Nicaea banned all body markings as a pagan practice in AD 787.[8] The Latin word for "tattoo" was "stigma", hence the English word "stigmatise".

In the period of early contact between the Māori and Europeans, Māori chiefs sometimes drew their moko (facial tattoo) on documents in place of a signature. Tattoos are sometimes used by forensic pathologists to help them identify burned, putrefied, or mutilated bodies. Tattoo pigment is buried deep enough in the skin that even severe burns are not likely to destroy a tattoo.[citation needed]

For many centuries seafarers have undergone tattooing for the purpose of enabling identification after drowning. In this way recovered bodies of such drowned persons could be connected with their family members or friends before burial. Therefore tattooists often worked in ports where potential customers were numerous. This traditional custom lives on in the modern era.[citation needed]





An identification tattoo on a survivor of the Auschwitz concentration camp.

Tattoos are also placed on animals, though very rarely for decorative reasons. Pets, show animals, thoroughbred horses and livestock are sometimes tattooed with identification and other marks. Pet dogs and cats are often tattooed with a serial number (usually in the ear, or on the inner thigh) via which their owners can be identified.

Also, animals are occasionally tattooed to prevent sunburn (on the nose, for example). Such tattoos are often performed by a veterinarian and in most cases the animals are anesthetized during the process. Branding is used for similar reasons and is often performed without anesthesia, but is different from tattooing as no ink or dye is inserted during the process.

[edit]Cosmetic





Tattooed lip makeup.

Main article: Permanent makeup

When used as a form of cosmetics, tattooing includes permanent makeup and hiding or neutralizing skin discolorations. Permanent makeup is the use of tattoos to enhance eyebrows, lips (liner and/or lipstick), eyes (liner), and even moles, usually with natural colors, as the designs are intended to resemble makeup.

[edit]Medical

Main article: Medical tattoo

Medical tattoos are used to ensure instruments are properly located for repeated application of radiotherapy and for the areola in some forms of breast reconstruction. Tattooing has also been used to convey medical information about the wearer (e.g. blood group, medical condition, etc). Tattoos are used in skin tones to cover vitiligo, skin pigmentation disorder.

[edit]Prevalence







A pe'a is a traditional male tattoo in Samoa. Samoan tattooing was practiced continuously despite attempts at suppression by Christian colonists in the 1830s.

Tattoos have experienced a resurgence in popularity in many parts of the world, particularly in North and South America, Japan, and Europe. The growth in tattoo culture has seen an influx of new artists into the industry, many of whom have technical and fine arts training. Coupled with advancements in tattoo pigments and the ongoing refinement of the equipment used for tattooing, this has led to an improvement in the quality of tattoos being produced.[9]

During the first decade of the 21st century, the presence of tattoos became evident within pop culture, inspiring television shows such as A&E's Inked and TLC's Miami Ink and LA Ink. The decoration of blues singer Janis Joplin with a wristlet and a small heart on her left breast, by the San Francisco tattoo artist Lyle Tuttle, has been called a seminal moment in the popular acceptance of tattoos as art.[10] Formal interest in the art of the tattoo became prominent in the 1990s through the beginning of the 21st century. Contemporary art exhibitions and visual art institutions have featured tattoos as art through such means as displaying tattoo flash, examining the works of tattoo artists, or otherwise incorporating examples of body art into mainstream exhibits. One such 2009 Chicago exhibition Freaks & Flash featured both examples of historic body art as well as the tattoo artists who produced it.[11]





Modern materials and techniques allow for a range of previously impossible designs and colors within tattoo art. Tattoo by artist based in Yunnan, China.

In many traditional cultures tattooing has also enjoyed a resurgence, partially in deference to cultural heritage. Historically, a decline in traditional tribal tattooing in Europe occurred with the spread of Christianity[citation needed]. However, some Christian groups, such as the Knights of St. John of Malta, sported tattoos to show their allegiance. A decline often occurred in other cultures following European efforts to convert aboriginal and indigenous people to Western religious and cultural practices that held tattooing to be a "pagan" or "heathen" activity. Within some traditional indigenous cultures, tattooing takes place within the context of a rite of passage between adolescence and adulthood.

Tattooing has become a fad among celebrities. David Beckham, an international soccer star, caught tattoo ‘fever’ beginning with the birth of his first son back in 1999 when he had Malloy ink his son’s name, “Brooklyn” at the bottom of his back. Then he had the first part of his guardian angel inked on his back. This was followed up in 2000, with his wife’s name being misspelled in Hindi on his left arm.[12]

Many studies have been done of the tattooed population and society's view of tattoos. In June 2006 the Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology published the results of a telephone survey which took place in 2004. It found that 36% of Americans ages 18–29, 24% of those 30-40 and 15% of those 41-51 had a tattoo.[13] In September 2006, the Pew Research Center conducted a telephone survey which found that 36% of Americans ages 18–25, 40% of those 26-40 and 10% of those 41-64 had a tattoo.[14] In January 2008, a survey conducted online by Harris Interactive estimated that 14% of all adults in the United States have a tattoo, just slightly down from 2003, when 16% had a tattoo. Among age groups, 9% of those ages 18–24, 32% of those 25-29, 25% of those 30-39 and 12% of those 40-49 have tattoos, as do 8% of those 50-64. Men are just slightly more likely to have a tattoo than women (15% versus 13%)[15]

[edit]Negative associations







Conspicuous tattoos and other body modification can make gainful employment difficult in many fields.

In Japan, tattoos are strongly associated with organized crime organizations known as the yakuza, particularly full body tattoos done the traditional Japanese way (Tebori). Many public Japanese bathhouses (sentō) and gymnasiums often openly ban those bearing large or graphic tattoos in an attempt to prevent Yakuza from entering.[16] The Government of Meiji Japan had outlawed tattoos in the 19th century, a prohibition that stood for 70 years before being repealed in 1948.[17]

In the United States many prisoners and criminal gangs use distinctive tattoos to indicate facts about their criminal behavior, prison sentences, and organizational affiliation.[18] A tear tattoo, for example, can be symbolic of murder, with each tear representing the death of a friend. At the same time, members of the U.S. military have an equally well established and longstanding history of tattooing to indicate military units, battles, kills, etc., an association which remains widespread among older Americans. Tattooing is also common in the British Armed Forces.

Tattooing was also used by the Nazi regime in Nazi concentration camps to tag prisoners.

Insofar as this cultural or subcultural use of tattoos predates the widespread popularity of tattoos in the general population, tattoos are still associated with criminality. Tatoos on the face in the shape of teardrops are usually associated with how many people a person has murdered. Although the general acceptance of tattoos is on the rise in Western society, they still carry a heavy stigma among certain social groups. Tattoos are generally considered an important part of the culture of the Russian mafia.

The prevalence of women in the tattoo industry, along with larger numbers of women bearing tattoos, appears to be changing negative perceptions. A study of "at-risk" (as defined by school absenteeism and truancy) adolescent girls showed a positive correlation between body-modification and negative feelings towards the body and self-esteem; however, also illustrating a strong motive for body-modification as the search for "self and attempts to attain mastery and control over the body in an age of increasing alienation."[19]

[edit]Religious perspectives



[edit]Christianity





Drawing of Croat woman with Christian hand tattoos.

See also: Christian tattooing in Bosnia and Herzegovina

There is no consistent Christian position on tattooing. The early Christian Montanist movement practiced tattooing as putting signs or seals of God's name according to Rev. 7:3; 9:4; 13:16; 14:1; 20:4; 22:4.

The majority of Christians do not take issue with the practice, while a minority uphold the Hebrew view against tattoos (see below) based on Leviticus 19:28. Tattoos of Christian symbols are common. When on pilgrimage, some Christians get a small tattoo dating the year and a small cross. This is usually done on the forearm.

Catholic Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina used tattooing, especially of children, for perceived protection against forced conversion to Islam during Turkish occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1463-1878). This form of tattooing continued long past its original motivation, though it was forbidden during Yugoslavian communism. Tattooing was performed during spring time or during special religious celebrations such as the Feast of St. Joseph, and consisted mostly of Christian crosses on hands, fingers, forearms, and below the neck and on the chest.[20][21][22]

Coptic Christians who live in Egypt tattoo themselves with the symbols of Coptic crosses on their right wrists.

[edit]Mormonism

Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (often referred to as "Latter-day Saints" or "Mormons") have been advised by their church leaders to not tattoo their bodies.[23] In the Articles of Faith of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints it states that the Latter-day Saints accept the Bible to be the word of God[24] Therefore, the church believes that the body is a sacred temple as preached in the New Testament,[25] and that they should keep it clean, inside and out. Tattooing, among other things, is discouraged.

[edit]Islam





Woman applying henna in Morocco, 2008. Permanent tattoos are forbidden in Sunni Islam, though their permissibility in Shia Islam is debated.

Tattoos are considered forbidden in Sunni Islam. According to the book of Sunni traditions, Sahih Bukhari, "The Prophet forbade [...] mutilation (or maiming) of bodies."[26] Sunni Muslims believe tattooing is forbidden and a sin because it involves changing the creation of God (Surah 4 Verse 117-120), and because the Prophet cursed the one who does tattoos and the one for whom that is done.[27] There is, however, difference of scholarly Sunni Muslim opinion as to the reason why tattoos are forbidden.[28]

The use of temporary tattoos made with henna is very common and is considered permissible in Muslim Morocco and Tunisia and other predominantly Muslim nations such as Indonesia and Malaysia. The permissibility of tattoos is debated in Shi'a Islam, with some Shi'a pointing to a ruling by Ayatollah Sistani stating they are permitted.[29]

[edit]Judaism

Tattoos are forbidden in Judaism[30] based on the Torah (Leviticus 19:28): "You shall not make gashes in your flesh for the dead, or incise any marks on yourselves: I am the Lord." The prohibition is explained by contemporary rabbis as part of a general prohibition on body modification that does not serve a medical purpose (such as to correct a deformity). Maimonides, a leading 12th century scholar of Jewish law and thought, explains the prohibition against tattoos as a Jewish response to paganism.

Since it was common practice for ancient pagan worshipers to tattoo themselves with religious iconography and names of gods, Judaism prohibited tattoos entirely in order to disassociate from other religions. In modern times, the association of tattoos with Nazi concentration camps and the Holocaust has given an additional level for revulsion to the practice of tattooing, even among many otherwise fairly secular Jews. It is a common misconception that anyone bearing a tattoo is not permitted to be buried in a Jewish cemetery.

[edit]Neopagan

Neopagans can use the process and the outcome of tattooing as an expression or representation of their beliefs.[31] Many tattooists' websites offer pagan images as examples of the kinds of artwork they provide.

[edit]Procedure







Modern tattoo machine in use: here outfitted with a 5-needle setup, but number of needles depends on size and shading desired.

Tattooing involves the placement of pigment into the skin's dermis, the layer of dermal tissue underlying the epidermis. After initial injection, pigment is dispersed throughout a homogenized damaged layer down through the epidermis and upper dermis, in both of which the presence of foreign material activates the immune system's phagocytes to engulf the pigment particles. As healing proceeds, the damaged epidermis flakes away (eliminating surface pigment) while deeper in the skin granulation tissue forms, which is later converted to connective tissue by collagen growth. This mends the upper dermis, where pigment remains trapped within fibroblasts, ultimately concentrating in a layer just below the dermis/epidermis boundary. Its presence there is stable, but in the long term (decades) the pigment tends to migrate deeper into the dermis, accounting for the degraded detail of old tattoos.[32]

Some tribal cultures traditionally created tattoos by cutting designs into the skin and rubbing the resulting wound with ink, ashes or other agents; some cultures continue this practice, which may be an adjunct to scarification. Some cultures create tattooed marks by hand-tapping the ink into the skin using sharpened sticks or animal bones (made like needles) with clay formed disks or, in modern times, needles. Traditional Japanese tattoos (Horimono) are still "hand-poked," that is, the ink is inserted beneath the skin using non-electrical, hand-made and hand held tools with needles of sharpened bamboo or steel. This method is known as tebori.

Traditional Hawaiian hand-tapped tattoos are experiencing a renaissance, after the practice was nearly extinguished in the years following Western contact. The process involves lengthy protocols and prayers and is considered a sacred rite more than an application of artwork. The tattooist chooses the design, rather than the wearer, based on genealogical information. Each design is symbolic of the wearer's personal responsibility and role in the community. Tools are hand-carved from bone or tusk without the use of metal.[33]





Traditional two coil tattoo machine

The most common method of tattooing in modern times is the electric tattoo machine, which inserts ink into the skin via a single needle or a group of needles that are soldered onto a bar, which is attached to an oscillating unit. The unit rapidly and repeatedly drives the needles in and out of the skin, usually 80 to 150 times a second. This modern procedure is ordinarily sanitary. The needles are single-use needles that come packaged individually. The tattoo artist must wash not only his or her hands, but he or she must also wash the area that will be tattooed. Gloves must be worn at all times and the wound must be wiped frequently with a wet disposable towel of some kind. The equipment must be sterilized in a certified autoclave before and after every use.

Prices for this service vary widely globally and locally, depending on the complexity of the tattoo, the skill and expertise of the artist, the attitude of the customer, the costs of running a business, the economics of supply and demand, etc. The time it takes to get a tattoo is in proportion with its size and complexity. A small one of simple design might take fifteen minutes, whereas an elaborate sleeve tattoo or back piece requires multiple sessions of several hours each.

The modern electric tattoo machine is far removed from the machine invented by Samuel O'Reilly in 1891. O'Reilly's machine was based on the rotary technology of the electric engraving device invented by Thomas Edison. Modern tattoo machines use electromagnetic coils. The first coil machine was patented by Thomas Riley in London, 1891 using a single coil. The first twin coil machine, the predecessor of the modern configuration, was invented by another Englishman, Alfred Charles South of London, in 1899.





Rotation- Tattoo- Machine by Manfred Kohrs; Number 1978 K

Another tattoo machine was developed 1970-1978 by the German tattoo artists Horst Heinrich Streckenbach[34] (1929–2001) and Manfred Kohrs.[35]

[edit]Dyes and pigments

Main article: Tattoo ink

Early tattoo inks were obtained directly from nature and were extremely limited in pigment variety. In ancient Hawaii, for example, kukui nut ash was blended with coconut oil to produce an ebony ink.[33] Today, an almost unlimited number of colors and shades of tattoo ink are mass-produced and sold to parlors worldwide. Tattoo artists commonly mix these inks to create their own unique pigments.





A variety of inks at a station in a tattoo shop. The small paper cups on the counter are used for mixing inks.

A wide range of dyes and pigments can be used in tattoos, from inorganic materials like titanium dioxide and iron oxides to carbon black, azo dyes, and acridine, quinoline, phthalocyanine and naphthol derivates, dyes made from ash, and other mixtures. Iron oxide pigments are used in greater extent in cosmetic tattooing.

Modern tattooing inks are carbon based pigments that have uses outside of commercial tattoo applications. In 2005 at Northern Arizona University a study characterized the makeup of tattoo inks (Finley-Jones and Wagner). The FDA expects local authorities to legislate and test tattoo pigments and inks made for the use of permanent cosmetics. In California, the state prohibits certain ingredients and pursues companies who fail to notify the consumer of the contents of tattoo pigments.

There has been concern expressed about the interaction between magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) procedures and tattoo pigments, some of which contain trace metals. Allegedly, the magnetic fields produced by MRI machines could interact with these metal particles, potentially causing burns or distortions in the image. The television show MythBusters tested the hypothesis, and found a slight interaction between commonly used tattoo inks and MRI. The interaction was stronger with inks containing high levels of iron oxide.[36][37]

Professional tattooists rely primarily on the same pigment base found in cosmetics. Amateurs will often use drawing inks such as low grade India ink, but these inks often contain impurities and toxins which can lead to illness or infection.

[edit]Studio hygiene





Traditional tattooing among the Dayak people of West Borneo, ca. 1927

The properly equipped tattoo studio will use biohazard containers for objects that have come into contact with blood or bodily fluids, sharps containers for old needles, and an autoclave for sterilizing tools.[38] Certain jurisdictions also require studios by law to have a sink in the work area supplied with both hot and cold water.

Proper hygiene requires a body modification artist to wash his or her hands before starting to prepare a client for the stencil, between clients, and at any other time where cross contamination can occur. The use of single use disposable gloves is also mandatory. Also, disposable gloves should be taken off after each stage of tattooing. The same gloves should not be used to clean the tattoo station, tattoo the client, or clean the tattoo; the tattoo artist should change their disposable gloves at each stage. In some states and countries it is illegal to tattoo a minor even with parental consent, and (except in the case of medical tattoos) it is forbidden to tattoo impaired persons, people with contraindicated skin conditions, those who are pregnant or nursing, those incapable of consent due to mental incapacity or those under the influence of alcohol or drugs.





Tattoo artist drawing a design on a client before permanent tattooing. Disposable gloves are used in modern tattooing for hygiene.

Before the tattooing begins the client is asked to approve the final position of the applied stencil. After approval is given the artist will open new, sterile needle packages in front of the client, and always use new, sterile or sterile disposable instruments and supplies, and fresh ink for each session (loaded into disposable ink caps which are discarded after each client). Also, all areas which may be touched with contaminated gloves will be wrapped in clear plastic to prevent cross-contamination. Equipment that cannot be autoclaved (such as counter tops, machines, and furniture) will be wiped with an approved disinfectant.[39]

Membership in professional organizations, or certificates of appreciation/achievement, generally helps artists to be aware of the latest trends. However, many of the most notable tattooists do not belong to any association. While specific requirements to become a tattooist vary between jurisdictions, many mandate only formal training in bloodborne pathogens, and cross contamination. The local department of health regulates tattoo studios in many jurisdictions.

For example, according to the health departments in Oregon and Hawaii, tattoo artists in these states are required to take and pass a test ascertaining their knowledge of health and safety precautions, as well as the current state regulations. Performing a tattoo in Oregon state without a proper and current license or in an unlicensed facility is a felony offense.[40] Tattooing was legalized in New York City in 1997,[41] and in Massachusetts and Oklahoma between 2002 and 2006.

[edit]Aftercare





Tattoo specific salves have become prevalent in recent years.

Tattoo artists, and people with tattoos, vary widely in their preferred methods of caring for new tattoos. Some artists recommend keeping a new tattoo wrapped for the first twenty-four hours, while others suggest removing temporary bandaging after two hours or less to allow the skin to 'breathe'. Many tattooists advise against allowing too much contact with hot tub or pool water, or soaking in a tub for the first two weeks. This is to prevent the tattoo ink from washing out or fading due to over-hydration and to avoid infection from exposure to bacteria. In contrast, other artists suggest that a new tattoo be bathed in very hot water early.

General consensus for care advises against removing the scab that may form on a new tattoo, and avoiding exposing one's tattoo to the sun for extended periods for at least 3 weeks; both of these can contribute to fading of the image. Furthermore, it is agreed that a new tattoo needs to be kept clean. Various products may be recommended for application to the skin, ranging from those intended for the treatment of cuts, burns and scrapes, to cocoa butter, hemp, salves, lanolin, A&D, Bepanthen or Aquaphor.[42] Oil based ointments are almost always recommended to be used in very thin layers due to their inability to evaporate and therefore over-hydrate the already perforated skin. In recent years, specific commercial products have been developed for tattoo aftercare. Although opinions about these products vary, there is near total agreement that either alone or in addition to some other product, soap and warm water work well to keep a tattoo clean and free from infection.[43] Ultimately, the amount of ink that remains in the skin throughout the healing process determines, in large part, how robust the final tattoo will look. If a tattoo becomes infected (uncommon but possible if one neglects to properly clean their tattoo) or if the scab falls off too soon (e.g. if it absorbs too much water and sloughs off early or is picked or scraped off), then the ink will not be properly fixed in the skin and the final image will be negatively affected.

[edit]Health risks



Main article: Tattoo medical issues





Modern tattoo artist's nitrile gloves and sterilized equipment

Because it requires breaking the skin barrier, tattooing may carry health risks, including infection and allergic reactions. Modern tattooists reduce such risks by following universal precautions, working with single-use items, and sterilizing their equipment after each use. Many jurisdictions require that tattooists have blood-borne pathogen training, such as is provided through the Red Cross and OSHA.

In amateur tattoos, such as those applied in prisons, however, there is an elevated risk of infection. Infections that can theoretically be transmitted by the use of unsterilized tattoo equipment or contaminated ink include surface infections of the skin, herpes simplex virus, tetanus, staph, fungal infections, some forms of hepatitis, tuberculosis, and HIV.[44] In the United States there have been no reported cases of HIV contracted via commercially-applied tattooing process.[45]

Tattoo inks have been described as "remarkably nonreactive histologically".[32] However, cases of allergic reactions to tattoo inks, particularly certain colors, have been medically documented.[citation needed] This is sometimes due to nickel in an ink pigment, which is a common metal allergy.[46][47] Occasionally, when a blood vessel is punctured during the tattooing procedure a bruise/hematoma may appear.

[edit]Tattoo removal



Main article: Tattoo removal

While tattoos are considered permanent, it is sometimes possible to remove them with laser treatments, fully or partially. Typically, black and some colored inks can be removed more completely. The expense and pain of removing tattoos will typically be greater than the expense and pain of applying them. Pre-laser tattoo removal methods include dermabrasion, salabrasion (scrubbing the skin with salt), cryosurgery, and excision which is sometimes still used along with skin grafts for larger tattoos.[48] These older methods however have been nearly completely replaced by laser removal treatment options.

[edit]Temporary tattoos







Temporary tattoo being applied to a human ankle

Main article: Temporary tattoo

Temporary tattoos are popular with models and children as they involve no permanent alteration of the skin but produce a similar appearance that can last anywhere from a few days to several weeks. The most common style is a type of body sticker similar to a decal, which is typically transferred to the skin using water. Although the design is waterproof, it can be removed easily with oil-based creams. Originally inserted as a prize in bubble gum packages, they consisted of a poor quality ink transfer that would easily come off with water or rubbing. Today's vegetable dye temporaries can look extremely realistic and adhere up to 3 weeks due to a layer of glue similar to that found on an adhesive bandage.

Henna tattoos (Mehndi) and silver nitrate stains that appear when exposed to ultraviolet light can take up to two weeks to fade from the skin. Silver nitrate is, however, a toxic substance and should not be used on skin.[49] Temporary airbrush tattoos (TATs) are applied by covering the skin with a stencil and spraying the skin with ink. In the past, this form of tattoo only lasted about a week. With the newest inks, tattoos can reasonably last for up to two weeks. Airbrush tattoos are generally sprayed with cosmetic paints. The ease of removal is a factor in their growing popularity. Unlike henna tattoos, the cosmetic paints can be rubbed off with isopropyl alcohol.